China views the ancient Silk Roads as a historical foundation for global connectivity, cultural exchange, trade and national rejuvenation. It positions the ancient routes as proof of historical centrality and as the inspiration for its modern mega Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).
Why “Silk Roads” you ask, isn’t there just one Silk Road?
The ancient Silk Road was actually a vast network of overland and maritime trade routes. Connecting East Asia to Central Asia, the Middle East, Europe and Africa. The trade networks laid the groundwork for globalization centuries before modern times. It facilitated the exchange of silk, spices, and precious metals, while also spreading Buddhism, Islam, and critical technologies across continents.
The term “Silk Road” itself was not used by ancient merchants; it was coined later in 1877 by German geographer Baron Ferdinand von Richthofen.
The ancient overland Silk Road spanned 6,400 kilometres. It was systematically formalized as a trade network in 130 BC during the Han Dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE), and remained heavily utilized until the mid-15th century. UNESCO recognized a 5,000-km stretch of the Chang’an-Tianshan Corridor in 2014, encompassing 33 designated sites across China, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan.
The ancient maritime Silk Route flourished later than the overland Silk Road and whilst it began by the 2nd century BC, it flourished between the 11th until the 18th century CE. It facilitated Chinese trade across the South China Sea, the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea, and extended all the way to the East African coastline. During the Song dynasty (960–1279 CE) Chinese ports managed between 200–300 long-distance trading vessels annually, generating 5% to 10% of the dynasty’s total fiscal revenue from over 50 trading partners. Later, during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), major maritime expeditions saw massive fleets of hundreds of ships and tens of thousands of crew members traverse these waters.
The full extent of the ancient Silk Road is broken down between overland and maritime routes in the map below. This post covers the Silk Road from China’s perspective. Further coverage of the Silk Road west of Xinjiang through Central Asia can be read in [xxxxxxx ADD TITLE AND LINK xxxxxxx].
Beginning with the ancient overland Silk Road through China, it was initiated and spread by China’s Han dynasty as a result of exploration and conquests in Central Asia. With the Mediterranean linked to the Fergana Valley (a fertile region in Central Asia shared by Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan), the next step was to open a route across the Tarim Basin and the Hexi Corridor to China proper. This was triggered around 130 BC, with Chinese ambassadors forging relationships in Central Asia, in particular, ambassador Zhang Qian. When the envoy Zhang Qian returned from his dangerous journeys west, he didn’t just bring tales, he brought a map of possibilities: oasis states, trade routes, alliances, and the existence of powerful horse cultures beyond the deserts. Based on his observations, Han emperor Wu decided to strategically expand its trading routes, infrastructure, military capability and activities into Central Asia. This included building the Great Wall further westward for protection of China’s expanding economic and political interests. This trail-blazed the Silk Road, making it one of the most famous trade routes in history and in the world.
As was the style of the time, it wasn’t all peace and love. The War of the Heavenly Horses (or the Han–Dayuan War) was a military conflict fought in 104 BC and 102 BC between the Chinese Han dynasty and the kingdom of Dayuan, in the Ferghana Valley at the easternmost end of the former Alexander the Great’s empire (between modern-day Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan). The war was allegedly instigated by trade disputes compounded by the geopolitical disagreements. The Chinese were also strongly attracted by the tall and powerful horses (named “heavenly horses”) in the possession of the Dayuan (literally the “Great Ionians,” the Greek kingdoms of Central Asia). Powerful horses were important to China at the time for their fighting conquests against the northern nomadic Xiongnu. After winning the War of the Heavenly Horses, and a series of ongoing battles known as the Han–Xiongnu War, Chinese armies established themselves in Central Asia, allowing them to continue their ambitions for the Silk Route as a major avenue of international trade with western civilisations, including the Roman Empire. Winning these wars were also the platform for China to expand its western regions, now within Xinjiang.
Growth and prolific trade back and forth along the Silk Road routes continued through the Roman Empire (30 BC – 3rd century CE) era. Intercontinental trade and communication became regular, organised, and protected by the “Great Powers.” Chinese wealth grew as they delivered silk and other luxury goods to the Roman Empire, whose wealthy women admired their beauty. The Roman Senate issued, in vain, several edicts to prohibit the wearing of silk, on economic and moral grounds: the import of Chinese silk caused a huge outflow of gold, and silk clothes were considered decadent and immoral.
The Roman Empire collapsed in the 5th century CE and was soon replaced by the Byzantine Empire (6th–14th centuries) era. Monks were sent by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian (527–565 CE) as spies on the Silk Road from Constantinople to China and back to steal the silkworm eggs. This resulted in silk production in the Mediterranean, particularly in northern Greece, and led to the Byzantine Empire establishing a monopoly on silk production in medieval Europe.
During the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), China’s control over the Silk Road caravan routes reached its zenith – The Golden Age. It was during this time that Chang’an (modern Xi’an), became the largest, most affluent, and most cosmopolitan city in the world. The Chinese court and aristocracy embraced foreign fashions, foods, music, and religions imported by travellers.
The ancient overland Silk Road continued thriving during the period of the Byzantine Empire through to the Yuan dynasty period under Kublai Khan (1215 – 1294 CE) the fifth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire. Kublai encouraged foreign merchants and travellers. His court is famously documented by the Venetian merchant Marco Polo, who served as his diplomat for 17 years, between 1275 to 1292.
After the fall of the Mongol Empire, the great political powers along the eastern and Central Asian part of the Silk Road became economically and culturally fragmented. Turkmeni lords seized land around the western part of the Silk Road from the decaying Byzantine Empire. The Silk Road became increasingly unsafe and untravelled. The Black Death, a devastating bubonic plague pandemic that swept across Afro-Eurasia between 1346 and 1353, also contributed to the decline of activity along the ancient Silk Road.
Thus by the mid 15th century onwards, the Turkish Ottoman Empire began competing with other empires for greater control over the overland routes, which prompted European countries to seek alternatives while themselves gaining leverage over their trade partners. This marked the beginning of the Age of Discovery, European colonialism, and the further intensification of globalization, but also further diverted away from the overland Silk Road.
The above map depicts the major routes, cities and landmarks along the ancient overland Silk Road through China.
The grand eastern terminus of the ancient overland Silk Road started in Chang’an, modern day Xi’an. During the Han and Tang dynasties, Chang’an served as the grand imperial capital and was where the trade caravans embarked westward. Protected by mountains and rivers, Chang’an was the ideal location for this role. The Chinese emperors further invested in its protection of heavy walls, outposts and military capability. It was a sprawling cosmopolitan centre that rivalled Rome and Constantinople in size and grandeur. Allegedly during this time, Chang’an occupied an area seven times larger than modern-day Xi’an. At its peak during the Tang Dynasty, the city’s population reached one million people who lived inside its 20-mile defensive walls. A large portion of these residents were foreign merchants, monks, and envoys.
The Terracotta Army in Xi’An is deeply connected to the ancient Silk Road. The Terracotta Army was built to guard the tomb of Qin Shi Huang (247 BC to 210 BC), the first emperor of China. His massive empire helped lay the groundwork and build the roads that later connected into the Silk Road. The demand to protect this wealth and trade route is part of why he built such a massive army of over 8,000 clay soldiers.
Travelling west over the central plains, the Silk Road passed through key oasis cities, including Lanzhou, Zhangye, and Jiayuguan which offered safety, water, supplies and repairs to travellers. The Chinese took great interest in the security of their trade products, and extended the Great Wall of China, including these cities, to ensure the protection of the trade route.
Lanzhou, “the Yellow River Gateway”, is the capital of Gansu Province and was the first major stop for caravans leaving Chang’an. Located in a narrow mountain valley, with the muddy, Yellow River rushing through, it was a massive hub for buying and selling goods. It was the only large city on a vast 1,600 kms stretch of the route. Lanzhou acted as a natural checkpoint and funnel for travellers.
Zhangye, “the Jade Kingdom” in Ganzhou, was a rich oasis nestled in the middle of the Hexi Corridor. The name Zhangye means “to extend arms,” reflecting Emperor Wudi’s goal to stretch the Han dynasty’s reach into the Western realms. Because it was large and secure, it served as a primary rest stop for monks and merchants. Marco Polo spent a year in Zhangye. Interestingly, before silk became popular, the trade route primarily moved jade and Zhangye is located near the Qilian Mountains, which was a key source of jade. This older route was called the Jade Road.
Near Zhangye is the Zhangye Danxia National Geological Park, which is famous for the “Rainbow Mountains,” with their bright, wavy stripes of colour. Over 24 million years, mineral deposits and tectonic shifts created these layers.
Located in the narrowest part of the Hexi Corridor, Jiayuguan is a military fortress at the western edge of the Ming Dynasty Great Wall. The fortress was built with three layers of defence (an inner city, an outer city, and a moat) and also had secret staircases and clever gate designs to trap enemies. The fortress controlled trade, protected travellers from raiders, and acted as the final border crossing out of imperial China toward Central Asia. It was also the perfect place to tax traders supporting further growth.
To the west of Jiayuguan, still in the Hexi Corridor of Gansu Province, the route split at Dunhuang to bypass the formidable Taklamakan Desert. The Taklamakan Desert is mostly an unforgiving “sand pit” and is the world’s second-largest shifting-sand desert. Its name roughly translates to “go in and you will not come out”. Dunhuang is most famous for the Mogao Caves, also known as the “Caves of the Thousand Buddhas”. Starting in the 4th century, monks began carving hundreds of caves into the cliffs as places to pray and meditate. These caves are filled with incredible statues and painted walls. The art shows how Buddhism traveled from India and Central Asia into China over a period of 1,000 years.
In 1900, a priest found a hidden room inside one of the caves. The room had been sealed shut for hundreds of years. Inside were thousands of ancient texts, maps, and silk paintings. Because it was so dry, these paper and silk items were in great shape. This “Library Cave” gave experts a rare look into daily life, trade, and religions on the Silk Road.
The northern Silk Road then traversed the narrow Gansu Corridor which is a vital, narrow passage between the high Tibetan Plateau and the arid Gobi Desert of Mongolia. As caravans entered the Xinjiang region, they hugged the edges of the Taklamakan, creating a string of vibrant oasis settlements before crossing the high mountain passes into Central Asia. They passed through Turpan, an oasis city known for ancient irrigation networks (the Karez system) and historical ruins. The last major trading hub the Silk Route passed through is Urumqi. From Urumqi, the ancient Northern Silk Road travelled northwest along the northern foothills of the Tian Shan mountains. To enter Central Asia, caravans passed through the Dzungarian Gate (Alataw Pass) into modern-day Kazakhstan.
The alternate route was the southern Silk Road or Karakoram route was mainly a single route from China through the Karakoram mountains, where it persists in modern times as the Karakoram Highway, a paved road through Khunjerab Pass that connects Pakistan and China. The southern route passed through Kashgar, the westernmost trading hub in China, within the far south-western corner of Xinjiang. Kashgar is famous for its massive bazaars where Chinese, Indian, Persian, and Arab merchants exchanged goods. From Kashgar it was also possible for traders and travellers to cross through the high alpine passes of the Pamir or Tian Shan mountains to reach modern-day Kyrgyzstan (via Torugart Pass to Bishkek or Irkeshtam Pass to Fergana Valley) or Tajikistan (via Qolma Pass / Kulma Pass).
The ancient Silk Road network was highly decentralized, and security was sparse. Travellers faced constant threats of banditry and nomadic raiders, and long expanses of inhospitable terrain with less than salubrious sleeping conditions night to night.
As a result, few individuals travelled the entire length of the Silk Road, instead relying on a succession of middlemen based at various stopping points along the way. Thus merchants became adept at forming important relationships and knowing the terrain and conditions along their stretch of the Silk Road necessary for successful relay trade rather than outfitting an expedition to take them all the way from China to Europe or North Africa. Merchants would for instance purchase a quantity of silk in Chang’an, China, and then travel westwards with it until he reached a market spot along the silk road, e.g. Jiayuguan, where he could sell it. He would then return to the east to make a new purchase, while the new owner of the silk would bring it farther west, before selling it to yet another merchant. This way, textiles, species and other goods could change hand numerous hands before reaching the final owner, and several notable market spots grew along the Silk Road.
A caravan along the Silk Road functioned as a mobile system of coordinated labour, resources (inc animals), and environmental adaptation. Its organization reflected a careful balance between efficiency and risk mitigation. A trading caravan typically consisted of dozens to hundreds of Bactrian camels, heavily guarded merchants, specialized guides, and labourers. Led by a caravan master, the personnel in the group included specialized guides familiar with local geography, armed guards to fend off bandits, and handlers who managed the animals and loaded heavy bales of silk, porcelain, tea, and jade.
Bactrian camels (double-humped) are pack animals and were the backbone of the operation. They were ideal due to their double coats to survive cold and dry mountain and desert conditions and were able to trek long stretches, like through the Tarim Basin. A single adult can carry up to 200 kg while travelling up to 50 kms a day. The camels were often tied nose-to-tail, with the caravan leader riding the first camel, which established the rhythm and pace of the journey.
Load management was critical. A camel might carry between 150 and 200 kilograms, distributed evenly to prevent injury and fatigue. Overloading could result in early loss of animals, which had cascading effects on the viability of the caravan. Loss of even a small percentage of animals could reduce carrying capacity below the threshold needed to sustain the journey economically. For this reason, caravans often included spare animals and supplies, accepting short-term inefficiencies to ensure long-term survival.
As a caravan headed further west, out of China and into Central Asia and into the terrain through the Pamir, Tian Shan or Karakoram mountain ranges, then camels would be swapped for mules, horses, and yaks which were preferred for their sure-footedness and adaptability to steep ascents.
Journeys required meticulous water management. Caravans relied on stringently planned stops at Caravanserais—fortified roadside inns spaced roughly a day’s journey (30 to 40 kilometres) apart, that provided shelter, food, fresh water, and animal fodder. Caravans navigated by the stars and local location-specific guides who knew exactly where wells, underground water, and tricky pathways were located.
In the early days of the Silk Road, beginning with the Han dynasty, the Chinese established a highly organized network of military-backed “staging posts”. Unlike the open courtyard inns seen in Central Asia, these Chinese outposts functioned as strict administrative hubs where local officials managed travel permits and resupply lines. In western regions like Xinjiang, as the road got closer to Central Asia, traditional open-courtyard caravanserais and bazaars became more common. Urban centres like Kashgar, Yarkand, and Dunhuang featured large inns where travellers could safely stable their animals while trading their textiles, metals, and spices. These facilities were self-sustaining. The ground floor usually featured stables and storage rooms, while the upper floors provided sleeping quarters.
In terms of exports from China along the Silk Road, Silk was the most famous and lucrative export. The production of silk originated in Neolithic China around 2700 BC. This silk was found in the Henan Province, a region widely regarded as the cradle of Chinese civilization. The intricate process of farming silkworms to create silk fabrics is known as sericulture. The methods were developed exclusively in China and were highly revered. Chinese dynasties closely guarded the secret of making silk. Revealing the process or smuggling silkworms out of the country was punishable by death. The Han dynasty utilized the fabric not just as an export, but as a diplomatic tool and a form of currency to pay off nomadic tribes and secure alliances. By the first century CE, Chinese silk was widely sought after across the Roman Empire, Egypt, and Greece, and hence the ancient trade routes being affectionately named the Silk Road.
The larvae of the Bombyx mori moth were fed mulberry leaves for about a month before spinning cocoons. These cocoons are made of a single continuous filament, which is unraveled to create raw silk threads. The actual production process involves several intricate steps:
* Rearing: Silkworms are fed a strict diet of mulberry leaves.
* Reeling: Cocoons are boiled in hot water to soften the natural binding proteins (sericin) and carefully unwound into single silk threads.
* Weaving: These threads are spun and woven into textiles like clothes, brocades, and tapestries.
Beyond lavish clothing, early Chinese societies utilized silk for wall hangings, musical instrument strings, traditional medicine, and early writing mediums.
Other lucrative commodities originating from China and traded in the west via the Silk Road included tea, jade, spices, wool, dyes, perfumes, and porcelain.
Based on growth in trade of silk, tea, jade etc… this helped generate previously unseen wealth for an emerging mercantile classes in China. However, potentially of even more importance, is how China’s role as a primary source of innovation fundamentally shaped the Silk Road’s broader historical impact. The westward proliferation of transformative goods, particularly paper and gunpowder, revolutionized governance, communication, and warfare across Eurasia, ultimately accelerating China’s own geopolitical influence and pre-modern global power.
In return, China imported a diverse mix of animals, precious stones, agricultural crops, and luxury goods along the ancient Silk Road. As discussed earlier, a prized import for China (not necessarily voluntarily acquired!) were Heavenly Horses, highly prized military horses from the Fergana Valley in Central Asia. The Silk Road introduced new agricultural goods to China, including grapes (and wine-making knowledge), pomegranates, alfalfa, cucumbers, walnuts, and sesame. New spices and aromatics including frankincense and myrrh from Somalia, and various costly spices from India. Precious stones such as lapis lazuli from Central Asia (like the Kingdom of Khotan), as well as pearls, corals, and precious gems. Precious metals, especially gold and silver, frequently coming from the Roman Empire. Woollen goods of elaborate tapestries, carpets, and blankets from Central Asia and the eastern Mediterranean. Intricate, luxury glass bottles and vessels from Egypt and the Roman Empire, which were considered extreme rarities and luxury status symbols in China. Fine cotton cloth from India and Persia.
In addition to goods, the network facilitated an unprecedented exchange of religious, philosophical, and scientific thought, much of which was incorporated into existing cultural norms by societies along the way. In particular, Buddhism entered China from India, Islam from Arab and Persian merchants, and early Assyrian Christianity took root in Central Asia via the Silk Road networks.
Early evidence of Buddhism in China dates to the 1st century CE. A famous legend attributes its formal introduction to Emperor Ming of the Eastern Han Dynasty, who reportedly sent envoys to India after having a dream of a radiant figure. The envoys returned with Buddhist monks, images, and texts. Major Silk Road hubs such as Dunhuang served as vital stepping stones for this transmission as thriving communities for Buddhism. Here, travellers and pilgrims interacted, leaving behind a legacy of magnificent structures like the Mogao Caves.
Initially, Chinese elites struggled to understand Buddhism, sometimes confusing its concepts with Daoism. Buddhist missionaries frequently borrowed terminology from Daoism to help the Chinese understand their teachings. Mahayana Buddhism (“the Greater Vehicle”) was the primary tradition that took off in China. It successfully adapted to Chinese values, sometimes altering deities and concepts to fit Confucian ideals of societal and family harmony. Translating original Indian texts was an immense undertaking that took centuries. By converting complex Sanskrit texts into a culturally Chinese context, Buddhism was able to firmly establish itself as a dominant philosophical and religious system by the time of the Tang Dynasty.
Turning to the ancient maritime Silk Route through China’s perspective, it was an extensive network of oceanic trade routes linking China’s south eastern coastal ports with Southeast Asia, India, the Middle East, East Africa, and the Mediterranean.
The maritime Silk Route involved exchanges in a wide variety of goods over a very wide region, not just silk or Asian exports. It differed significantly in several aspects from the overland Silk Road, and thus should not be viewed as a mere extension of it. Traders travelling through the maritime Silk Road could span the entire distance of the maritime routes, instead of through regional relays as with the overland route. Ships could carry far larger amounts of goods, creating greater economic impact with each exchange. Goods carried by the ships also differed from goods carried by caravans. Traders on the maritime route faced different perils like weather and piracy, but they were not affected as much by political instability and could simply avoid areas in conflict. One important aspect of the ancient maritime Silk Road was freedom and autonomy of navigation.
Until the 7th century, land routes were preferred and profitable. It was an era where Chinese, Romans and Parthians flourished. But later, new powers emerged, and Arabs played a central role in the rise of the maritime Silk Road. The maritime route gained favour over land due to the capacity for greater volume of shipments and relative safety compared to the looting and thefts on land routes.
By Song Dynasty from the 10th century, with the development of ship building and marine technology, navigation routes to Southeast Asia, Malacca Strait, Indian Ocean, Red Sea, even the African continent were opened. In fact, due to these possibilities and increasing issues for overland activities, the maritime Silk Route became the main channel of China’s communication and exchanges with the international community. During the reign of the Song emperor Renzong (1022-1063), a great deal of money and energy was spent on bringing together knowledge and know-how. Drawing on the knowledge of Arab and Indian sailors, Chinese ships became the most advanced in the world.
Under the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368), the government set up the Shibosi, a trade office, in a number of ports, including Ningbo, Guangzhou, Quanzhou, Shanghai, Ganpu, Wenzhou and Hangzhou, enabling silk exports to Japan. During the Tang, Song, Yuan and Ming dynasties, each port set up an oceanic trading department to manage all foreign maritime trade.
As the Chinese trade network grew they followed the footsteps of older Austronesian maritime trade networks in Southeast Asia, as well as the maritime spice networks between Southeast Asia and South Asia, and the West Asian maritime networks in the Arabian Sea and beyond. The maritime network was broadly divided into two major interconnected branches:
* South China Sea Route: This was the primary, long-distance hub connecting China to the wider world. Departing primarily from bustling hubs like Guangzhou (Canton) and Quanzhou (Zayton), ships sailed south through the South China Sea, passed the Strait of Malacca, and crossed the Indian Ocean to India, and onward to the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa. Exporters traded fine Chinese silk, porcelain, and tea in exchange for foreign spices, ivory, and gems.
* East China Sea Route: From the Zhou dynasty, Chinese ships have set sail from ports on the eastern coast, such as Ningbo near Hangzhou and Yangzhou, and travelled across the Yellow Sea to the Korean Peninsula and the Japanese islands. This route was less about spices and more about spreading culture, religion (like Buddhism), and specialized crafts like bronze casting and papermaking.
Chinese cities which were key ports and at their peak during the Song and Yuan dynasties (10th to 14th centuries) thrived to be bustling, cosmopolitan cities with diverse populations, include:
* Quanzhou (Fujian Province): Formerly known as Citong, it was one of the largest ports in the world, hosting over 3,000 ships annually and trading with over 90 countries and regions. Quanzhou’s harbour was deep and safe. It features historic landmarks such as the Luoyang Bridge and the ancient docks. Built between 1053 and 1059 during the Song Dynasty, the Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou is China’s first cross-sea stone beam bridge. Measuring about 731 meters long, it is famous for pioneering a unique engineering trick: builders grew oysters on the stone piers to act as natural glue against strong tides.
* Guangzhou (Guangdong Province): Formerly known as Canton, served as the central hub for the “Ocean Route to Foreign Lands”. Guangzhou is located beyond the mouth of the Pearl River, hence ships had to navigate the complex tides of the Pearl River and needed guides to help them reach port safely. To help them navigate, ancient sailors used specific buildings as lighthouses and checkpoints. Because the ocean trade made so much money, the Chinese government set up the first official office to manage foreign commerce in Guangzhou. In 714 CE, the Tang Dynasty created the Guangzhou Maritime Trade Commissioner to inspect cargo, collect ship taxes, and supervise foreign diplomats. By 1080 CE, the government had established the Guangzhou Maritime Trade Regulations, China’s first written foreign trade laws. Guangzhou is located near the location of both Macau and Hong Kong which became prized trading hubs for the Portuguese and British respectively.
Ancient Chinese ships that sailed the maritime Silk Road were junks, the super-ships of their day. Junks were built with flat bottoms and strong, divided sections called watertight bulkheads. These walls acted like safety gates. If one part of the ship broke, water stayed trapped in that section. Good in theory but not fail proof! The junk’s square sails, called lug sails, were made of bamboo and cloth and let sailors steer the boat easily, even when the wind was blowing straight at the front of the ship. In these ancient times, the junks had sternpost rudders which also assisted steering these massive ships with great control. This advanced sailing technology and safe design are why ancient Chinese traders could travel so far.
Maritime travel was dependent on the seasonal winds: the southwest monsoon period, April – September, merchant ships sail westward (China → Southeast Asia → India → Arabia) and reverse direction during northeast monsoon period, October–March, merchant ships return eastward (Arabia → India → Southeast Asia → China). As a result, seafaring merchants developed sailing circuits that allowed them to use the monsoon winds to travel long distances, then return home when the wind patterns shifted. Merchants remained in ports for 3-6 months.
Until the nautical compass was invented and first used for maritime navigation in China during the Song dynasty, between 1088 and 1117 CE, sailors mapped out their trips without a compass. They memorized the stars, tracked the path of the wind, watched ocean waves, and followed migrating birds. The advent of the compass revolutionised the maritime Silk Routes and was an important element in it flourishing from this point onwards.
By the time of Zheng He’s expeditions, detailed below, the fleets were equipped with detailed nautical charts, chip logs, sounding lines, marine compasses with errors within 2.5 degrees and the unique pulling stars measurement method (based on cross-examinations between marine astrolabe, nautical almanac and marine compass). During the day, the fleet used signal flags to communicate among vessels and at night lanterns in different colours were employed. When it was raining or there was heavy fog, gongs, trumpets and shell trumpets would come out in full swing.
During the Ming dynasty, a famous Chinese explorer named Zheng He (1371–1433) led seven major westward maritime expeditions during 1405-1433 by imperial order. They represented China’s largest and farthest-reaching maritime endeavours in ancient times. These peaceful missions to Southeast Asia, East Africa, the Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea were intended above all to demonstrate the prestige and grandeur of China and its Emperor Ming Yongle. The aim was also to recognize some thirty states and establish political and commercial relations with them.
The benefits from these expeditions were enormous. The relationships with the neighbouring states were strengthened; the message of peace and mutual prosperity was spread; the example of how nations could deal with each other in a respective way was set; and Chinese people’s knowledge about the world around them was immensely enriched.
Importantly, in context of how China makes decisions and behaves within today’s global political arena, these maritime expeditions demonstrated the unmatched naval power of the Middle Kingdom, projecting influence rather than trying to establish traditional colonies as other western countries did. In the 2000s, the pathway of partnership and diplomacy is so much effective when you consider the influence and success of China’s Belt and Road Initiative.
The hero image for this post depicts Zheng He with one of his massive treasure ships and the Forbidden City in Beijing. This signifies his role as a famous Chinese admiral, explorer, and diplomat during the early Ming Dynasty, as well as the impressive influence wielded by China out of its capital Beijing. For the type of exploration and distances travelled – half of the world to as far as east Africa – during such an era of conflict, He’s feats are remarkable. The below, maps the routes and destinations visited by admiral Zheng He on his voyages – impressive!!
He was born into a Muslim family in Yunnan Province in 1371. As a 10 year old, he became a prisoner of war and was sent to Beijing as a eunuch to serve the fourth prince, Yongle, of the Ming emperor’s family. Within two decades the fourth prince became the third Ming emperor and Zheng He was instrumental helping with his developed military expertise. During those two decades he developed a strong dedication to Buddhism, which he continued to promote for the rest of his endeavours. In 1405, the third year of Ming emperor Yongle’s reign, the first of He’s maritime expeditions set out and didn’t return for two years. He was 34 years old on this first voyage and continued until his seventh and last voyage over a 29 year period. On his seventh voyage, in 1433, He became very ill and died in Calicut (now officially called Kozhikode), in Kerela, southern India.
Zheng He’s total fleet consisted of around 250 to 300 vessels, including his commanding ship which was an armed bulk carriers called Baochuan (“Treasure Ships”). These were He’s largest ships and were almost twice as long as any wooden ship ever recorded, at 130 meters long, 50 meters wide and powered by 12 sails on nine masts. With four levels, it could carry up to 1,000 crew. Other vessels included 120m long Horse Ship loaded with commercial goods, 90m long Grain Ship stored with food and fresh water, 80m long Sitting Ship for marines and other support staff and 60m long Battle Ship that guarded the fleet.
The fleet for his first voyage was comprised of 63 vessels and boarded 27,800 people. The crew carried out tasks of marine navigation, foreign trade, logistic service and military escort respectively under the centralised command of Zheng He and his assistants. In a way, his fleet was like a micro-empire, that included professionals from diverse disciplines: the marines, the honour guards, the ship repair technicians, the astrologists, the geologists, the diplomats, the merchants, the interpreters, the accountants, the writers, the painters, the musicians, the Buddhist monks, the Muslim mullahs, the doctors, the chefs, and the sowing and laundry ladies.
The fleet also carried tanks of drinking water, food and provisions, a massive amount of goods and knowledge for trading, military equipment, and artefacts for diplomacy. The items for trading were highly valuable, durable goods primarily being silk wrapped in oilcloth, bricks of tea, and blue-and-white porcelain. They also included new innovative technologies such as the compass, gunpowder and papermaking techniques, and goods such as cotton, lacquers, copper, dyes, books and paper.
Each time when returning home, the fleet was boarded by a large number of foreign diplomats and merchants, sometimes, the entire families of foreign monarchs. Along with imported goods like sapphire, emerald, ivory, corals, pearls, ruby, crystal, varied rare woods and wooden artefacts, all sorts of precious metals, as well as herbal medicines, cooking spices, ambergris for incenses, and exotic animals like giraffes.
In 1409, prior to one of these expeditions, the admiral Zheng He had a carved stone stele made in Nanjing, the present-day capital of Jiangsu province (eastern China). Engraved on the stele were prayers honouring three deities – Buddha, Allah, and the Hindu god Vishnu – in the three respective languages – Chinese, Persian and Tamil. The stele travelled with He’s flotilla and was left in Sri Lanka as a gift to a local Buddhist temple. It was found in 1911 in the town of Galle, Sri Lanka.
Admiral Zheng He built a legacy of helping keep the ocean safe for merchants. He was known for ruthlessly hunting down pirate gangs in Southeast Asia. On his very first voyage, he famously defeated a powerful pirate captain named Chen Zuyi, who had been attacking ships near the Strait of Malacca. He also did not hesitate to use overwhelming military force when local rulers threatened his mission or attacked his men. His two most famous battles against local kings occurred in Sumatra and Sri Lanka.
The Ming–Kotte War (Sri Lanka, 1411): This was Zheng He’s most dramatic military campaign, involving a daring counter-attack against King Alakesvara of the Kingdom of Kotte. The Sri Lankan king, Alakesvara, was notoriously hostile to foreign merchants. He lured Zheng He and an escort of about 2,000 – 3,000 soldiers into his capital city, away from the coast. He then sent 50,000 soldiers to cut off the Ming fleet and massacre the trapped troops. Realising he was surrounded, Zheng He pulled off a brilliant tactical move. Knowing the king’s main army was at the coast attacking the ships, Zheng He led his 2,000 men straight into the undefended capital city and captured the royal palace. Caught completely off guard, the Sri Lankan army rushed back to save their capital, but Zheng He’s men held the city walls and defended their prize. King Alakesvara was taken prisoner, brought back to China, and later released after promising to pay tribute to the Emperor.
The Battle of Alimanjia (Sumatra, 1415): During his fourth voyage, Zheng He became entangled in a civil war in Samudera Pasai (modern-day Sumatra, Indonesia). A usurper named Sekandar had murdered the rightful king and taken the throne. The rightful king’s family begged Zheng He for help. Sekandar resented China’s refusal to recognise him and attacked Zheng He’s forces with a local army. Zheng He’s disciplined Ming troops easily crushed the rebel forces. They pursued Sekandar into the mountains, captured him, and sent him back to Beijing, where Emperor Yongle ordered his execution.
Shortly after Zheng He’s death, after decades of marine adventures, the Ming government ceased the massive maritime expeditions as it was no longer able to afford them any longer.
In the 21st century, the name “New Silk Road” is used to describe a new vision and resulting large infrastructure initiatives along many of the historic trade routes; the best known include the Eurasian Land Bridge and the Chinese Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). These largely mirror both the overland and maritime Silk Roads. The BRI aims to connect China to Southeast Asia, the Indian Ocean, the Middle East, Africa, and Europe through a network of modernized trading hubs, ports and transport corridors.
Triggered by China’s extreme vulnerability to the “Malacca Dilemma”, coined by then Chinese leader Hu Jintao in late 2003, being the realization that nearly 80% of its imported oil and a vast portion of its global trade must pass through highly vulnerable, narrow maritime chokepoints like the Strait of Malacca and the Strait of Hormuz. The core triggers behind the “Malacca Hormuz Axis” strategy were:
* Vulnerability of sea lanes: the “Malacca Dilemma” describes Beijing’s fear that hostile powers (specifically the United States of America) could exploit China’s reliance on these chokepoints by imposing blockades or embargoes during a geopolitical conflict.
* Energy insecurity: China was heavily dependent on the Middle East and Africa for its energy needs. Any disruption or blockade in the Strait of Hormuz or the Strait of Malacca would result in rapid fuel and raw material shortages that could cripple the Chinese manufacturing sector and domestic economy.
* Dependence on a few chokepoints: The reliance on these two specific bottlenecks meant that an interruption anywhere along the axis, whether due to regional disputes, piracy, or blockades, would severely compromise national security.
China’s strategic responses from 2004 have been to break free from this geographic stranglehold by initiating a massive, multi-pronged long-term transition programme that includes:
* The “Belt and Road Initiative” (BRI): Investing heavily in overland rail, road, and pipeline networks across Central Asia and Eurasia to bypass maritime shipping lanes entirely.
* Alternative routes: Developing shortcuts like the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor to link the Middle East directly to western China via the port of Gwadar, and building oil/gas pipelines in Myanmar.
* Economic electrification: Investing aggressively in high-speed rail, electric vehicles, and renewable energy to lower its overall reliance on imported crude oil.
* Naval expansion: Developing a “Two Oceans” strategy and a massive “blue water” navy to project military power into the Indian and Pacific Oceans, securing its sea lines of communication.
Over the last two decades, China’s “Malacca Hormuz Axis” strategy has fundamentally transformed its economic infrastructure, geopolitical footprint, and energy security.
* China aggressively constructed overland pipelines and alternative ports via bi-lateral agreements, including: pipelines through Central Asia and the massive Power of Siberia pipelines to secure steady, interception-proof oil and gas directly from Russia. Beijing heavily invested in the deep-sea port at Kyaukphyu and built pipelines to create the Myanmar Corridor, running directly from the Indian Ocean through Myanmar into China, entirely avoiding the Malacca Strait. The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) has been created through development of the Gwadar Port on the Arabian Sea in southern Pakistan, to link energy imports directly to China’s Xinjiang region.
* To secure the broader Malacca Hormuz Axis, China expanded its naval reach, investing in or establishing logistical hubs (the so-called “String of Pearls”) spanning from the Middle East to the South China Sea. Beijing has also continuously engaged in advanced ocean mapping and surveillance in alternative maritime chokepoints (like the Sunda and Lombok straits) to maintain operational readiness in the region.
* Fearing severe economic disruption from a naval blockade, China enacted the “Electro-State Transition”, shifting massive resources into renewable energy, electric vehicles, and domestic resource hoarding to reduce its total reliance on imported fossil fuel. In addition, China accelerated its internal connectivity, constructing an astonishing 54,000 kms of high-speed rail to support its industrial base and create overland trade links to Eurasia.
As a result of these steps underpinning China’s trade and energy transition the impact between 2003 vs. 2026 is phenomenal:
* Renewable energy surge: In 2003, renewable energy represented a negligible fraction of China’s total energy consumption. By early 2026, China’s clean electricity capacity reached 52%, exceeding fossil fuel-based generation for the first time. Renewable generation now accounts for ~40% of total electricity.
* Coal reliance shift: In the early 2000s, coal dominated electricity generation by over 70%. By early 2026, wind and solar capacities surpassed coal capacity for the first time.
* Crude oil dependency: In 2003, China imported 3 million barrels of oil per day, a figure that soared to over 16 million barrels daily by 2026. Despite this surge the source and vulnerability is significantly reduced.
* Maritime chokepoint dependence: In the 2000s, approximately 80% of China’s crude imports transited the Strait of Malacca and Strait of Hormuz. With diversification, about 45% of China’s seaborne crude and a third of its LNG flows through the Hormuz-Malacca axis by 2026.
China’s ancient Silk Road, with many connected routes covering half the world both overland and seas, to trade goods, spread ideas and knowledge, forge partnerships and achieve diplomacy, between East and West was so significant in empowering the modern vision. China’s modern Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) uses this historical legacy to build a massive global network of railways, ports, pipelines, and digital infrastructure, for much the same desired outcomes.